https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1753-129X
Abstract
Soil cation exchange capacity (CEC) can be divided into external CEC and internal CEC depending on whether exchangeable cations are located on mineral surfaces or within the intercrystalline mineral space. External and internal CECs play different roles in many important aspects of soil physical and mechanical behaviors such as water retention and volume change. An approach is proposed to separate internal and external CEC from total CEC based on automated measurements of the soil water isotherm (SWI). Results from SWI experiments are interpreted to explicitly divide total specific surface area (SSA) into external and internal SSA by separating external water adsorption, internal water adsorption, and capillary water retention from measured isotherms. Internal CEC is separated from total CEC using a proportionality factor between the internal and total SSA. Practical application is demonstrated by comparing internal CEC for 30 natural soils covering a wide spectrum of soil types with the existing indices for expansive soil classification. A new expansive soil classification approach is proposed using internal CEC as an index variable and has shown improved accuracy in classifications compared to existing approaches.
Issue Section:
Technical Papers
References
1.
Akin
, I. D.
“Clay Surface Properties by Water Vapor Sorption Methods
.” PhD diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison
, 2014
.2.
Akin
, I. D.
and Likos
W. J.
. 2014
. “Specific Surface Area of Clay Using Water Vapor and EGME Sorption Methods
.” Geotechnical Testing Journal
37
, no. 6
(November): 1016
–1027
. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ201400643.
Akin
, I. D.
and Likos
W. J.
. 2016
. “Single-Point and Multi-point Water-Sorption Methods for Specific Surface Areas of Clay
.” Geotechnical Testing Journal
39
, no. 2
(March): 291
–300
. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ201501174.
Anandarajah
, A.
and Lu
N.
. 1991
. “Numerical Study of the Electrical Double-Layer Repulsion between Non-parallel Clay Particles of Finite Length
.” International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics
15
, no. 10
(October): 683
–703
. https://doi.org/10.1002/nag.16101510025.
ASTM International.
Standard Test Method for Measuring the Exchange Complex and Cation Exchange Capacity of Inorganic Fine-Grained Soils (Superseded)
. ASTM D7503-10. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International
, approved July 1, 2010
. https://doi.org/10.1520/D7503-106.
ASTM International.
Standard Test Method for Swell Index of Clay Mineral Component of Geosynthetic Clay Liners
. ASTM D5890-19. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International
, approved May 1, 2019
. https://doi.org/10.1520/D5890-197.
Battaglia
, S.
, de Souza Leoni
L.
, and Sarori
F.
. 2006
. “A Method for Determining the CEC and Chemical Composition of Clays via XRF
.” Clay Minerals
41
, no. 3
(September): 717
–725
. https://doi.org/10.1180/00098550641302148.
Borden
, D.
and Giese
R. F.
. 2001
. “Baseline Studies of the Clay Minerals Society Source Clays: Cation Exchange Capacity Measurements by the Ammonia-Electrode Method
.” Clays and Clay Minerals
49
, no. 5
(October): 444
–445
. https://doi.org/10.1346/CCMN.2001.04905109.
Brunauer
, S.
, Emmett
P. H.
, and Teller
E.
. 1938
. “Adsorption of Gases in Multimolecular Layers
.” Journal of the American Chemical Society
60
, no. 2
(February): 309
–319
. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja01269a02310.
Burrafato
, G.
and Miano
F.
. 1993
. “Determination of the Cation Exchange Capacity of Clays by Surface Tension Measurements
.” Clay Minerals
28
, no. 3
(September): 475
–481
. https://doi.org/10.1180/claymin.1993.028.3.1011.
Carter
, D. L.
, Heilman
M. D.
, and Gonzalez
C. L.
. 1965
. “Ethylene Glycol Monoethyl Ether for Determining Surface Area of Silicate Minerals
.” Soil Science
100
, no. 5
(November): 356
–360
.12.
Cerato
, A. B.
and Lutenegger
A. J.
. 2002
. “Determination of Surface Area of Fine-Grained Soils by the Ethylene Glycol Monoethyl Ether (EGME) Method
.” Geotechnical Testing Journal
25
, no. 3
(September): 315
–321
. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ11087J13.
Chang
, F.-R. C.
and Sposito
G.
. 1996
. “The Electrical Double Layer of a Disk-Shaped Clay Mineral Particle: Effects of Electrolyte Properties and Surface Charge Density
.” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science
178
, no. 2
(March): 555
–564
. https://doi.org/10.1006/jcis.1996.015114.
Chen
, F. H.
1988
. Foundations on Expansive Soils: Developments in Geotechnical Engineering
. Amsterdam
, the Netherlands
: Elsevier
.15.
Číčel
, B.
and Machajdík
D.
. 1981
. “Potassium- and Ammonium-Treated Montmorillonites. I. Interstratified Structures with Ethylene Glycol and Water
.” Clays and Clay Minerals
29
, no. 1
(February): 40
–46
. https://doi.org/10.1346/CCMN.1981.029010616.
Çokça
, E.
and Birand
A.
. 1993
. “Determination of Cation Exchange Capacity of Clayey Soils by the Methylene Blue Test
.” Geotechnical Testing Journal
16
, no. 4
(December): 518
–524
. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ10291J17.
Dyal
, R. S.
and Hendricks
S. B.
. 1950
. “Total Surface of Clays in Polar Liquids as a Characteristic Index
.” Soil Science
69
, no. 6
(June): 503
–509
.18.
Farrar
, D. M.
and Coleman
J. D.
. 1967
. “The Correlation of Surface Area with Other Properties of Nineteen British Clay Soils
.” Journal of Soil Science
18
, no. 1
(July): 118
–124
. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.1967.tb01493.x19.
Gates
, W. P.
2005
. “Infrared Spectroscopy and the Chemistry of Dioctahedral Smectites
.” In The Application of Vibrational Spectroscopy to Clay Minerals and Layered Double Hydroxides
, edited by Kloprogge
J. T.
and Schroeder
P. A.
. Chantilly, VA: Clay Minerals Society
.20.
Holtz
, W. G.
and Gibbs
H. J.
. 1956
. “Engineering Properties of Expansive Clays
.” Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers
121
, no. 1
(January): 641
–663
. https://doi.org/10.1061/TACEAT.000732521.
Kariuki
, P. C.
, Van Der Meer
F.
, and Verhoef
P. N. W.
. 2003
. “Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) Determination from Spectroscopy
.” International Journal of Remote Sensing
24
, no. 1
(November): 161
–167
. https://doi.org/10.1080/0143116030501022.
Karpiński
, B.
and Szkodo
M.
. 2015
. “Clay Minerals—Mineralogy and Phenomenon of Clay Swelling in Oil & Gas Industry
.” Advances in Materials Science
15
, no. 1
(March): 37
–55
. https://doi.org/10.1515/adms-2015-000623.
Khorshidi
, M.
and Lu
N.
. 2017
a. “Intrinsic Relation between Soil Water Retention and Cation Exchange Capacity
.” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
143
, no. 4
(April): 4016119. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.000163324.
Khorshidi
, M.
and Lu
N.
. 2017
b. “Determination of Cation Exchange Capacity from Soil Water Retention Curve
.” Journal of Engineering Mechanics
143
, no. 6
(February): 4017023. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EM.1943-7889.000122025.
Khorshidi
, M.
, Lu
N.
, Akin
I. D.
, and Likos
W. J.
. 2017
. “Intrinsic Relationship between Specific Surface Area and Soil Water Retention
.” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
143
, no. 1
(January): 04016078
-1
. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.000157226.
Khorshidi
, M.
, Lu
N.
, and Khorshidi
A.
. 2016
. “Intrinsic Relationship between Matric Potential and Cation Hydration
.” Vadose Zone Journal
15
, no. 11
(November): 1
–12
. https://doi.org/10.2136/vzj2016.01.000127.
Laird
, D. A.
1996
. “Model for Crystalline Swelling of 2:1 Phyllosilicates
.” Clays and Clay Minerals
44
, no. 4
(August): 553
–559
. https://doi.org/10.1346/CCMN.1996.044041528.
Laird
, D. A.
1999
. “Layer Charge Influences on the Hydration of Expandable 2:1 Phyllosilicates
.” Clays and Clay Minerals
47
, no. 5
(October): 630
–636
. https://doi.org/10.1346/CCMN.1999.047050929.
Likos
, W. J.
2008
. “Vapor Adsorption Index for Expansive Soil Classification
.” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
134
, no. 7
(July): 1005
–1009
. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2008)134:7(1005)30.
Likos
, W. J.
, Bowders
J.
, and Gates
W.
. 2010
. “Mineralogy and Engineering Properties of Bentonite
.” In Geosynthetic Clay Liners for Waste Containment Facilities
, edited by Bouazza
A.
and Bowders
J.
, 31
–53
. Boca Raton, FL
: CRC Press
.31.
Likos
, W. J.
, Lu
N.
, and Wensel
W.
. 2011
. “Performance of a Dynamic Dew Point Method for Moisture Isotherms of Clays
.” Geotechnical Testing Journal
34
, no. 4
(July): 373
–382
. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ10290132.
Likos
, W. J.
, Olsen
H. W.
, Krosley
L.
, and Lu
N.
. 2003
. “Measured and Estimated Suction Indices for Expansive Soil Classification
.” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
129
, no. 7
(July): 665
–668
. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2003)129:7(665)33.
Lu
, N.
2016
. “Generalized Soil Water Retention Equation for Adsorption and Capillarity
.” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
142
, no. 10
(October): 4016051. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.000152434.
Lu
, N.
, Calderon
A. R. A.
, and Wayllace
A.
. 2023
. “Uniqueness of Suction Stress Value at Liquid Limit of Soil
.” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
149
, no. 1
(January): 02822003. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.000293735.
Lu
, N.
, Luo
S.
, and Zhou
B.
. 2022
. “Water Adsorption–Induced Pore-Water Pressure in Soil
.” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
148
, no. 6
(June): 4022042. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.000281436.
Lu
, N.
and Zhang
C.
. 2019
. “Soil Sorptive Potential: Concept, Theory, and Verification
.” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
145
, no. 4
(April): 4019006. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.000202537.
Lu
, N.
and Zhang
C.
. 2020
. “Separating External and Internal Surface Areas of Soil Particles
.” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
146
, no. 2
(February): 4019126. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.000219838.
Luo
, S.
, Likos
W. J.
, and Lu
N.
. 2021
. “Cavitation of Water in Soil
.” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
147
, no. 8
(August): 4021079. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.000259839.
Luo
, S.
and Lu
N.
. 2021
. “Validating the Generality of a Closed-Form Equation for Soil Water Isotherm
.” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
147
, no. 12
(December): 4021138. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.000268140.
Luo
, S.
, Lu
N.
, Zhang
C.
, and Likos
W. J.
. 2022
. “Soil Water Potential: A Historical Perspective and Recent Breakthroughs
.” Vadose Zone Journal
21
, no. 4
(July/August): e20203. https://doi.org/10.1002/vzj2.2020341.
Luo
, S.
, Zhou
B.
, Likos
W. J.
, and Lu
N.
. 2024
. “Determining Capillary Pore-Size Distribution of Soil from Soil–Water Retention Curve
.” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
150
, no. 2
(February): 04023138. https://doi.org/10.1061/JGGEFK.GTENG-1164742.
Luo
, S.
, Zhou
B.
, Peng
J.
, Likos
W. J.
, and Lu
N.
. 2023
. “Unit Weight of Water in Clayey Soil
.” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
149
, no. 3
(March): 4022134. https://doi.org/10.1061/JGGEFK.GTENG-1084443.
McKeen
, R. G.
n.d “A Model for Predicting Expansive Soil Behavior
.” Paper presented at the Seventh International Conference on Expansive Soils
, Dallas, TX, August 1992.44.
McQueen
, I. S.
and Miller
R. F.
. 1974
. “Approximating Soil Moisture Characteristics from Limited Data: Empirical Evidence and Tentative Model
.” Water Resources Research
10
, no. 3
(June): 521
–527
. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR010i003p0052145.
Mermut
, A. R.
and Lagaly
G.
. 2001
. “Baseline Studies of the Clay Minerals Society Source Clays: Layer Charge Determination and Characteristics of Those Minerals Containing 2:1 Layers
.” Clays and Clay Minerals
49
, no. 5
(October): 393
–397
. https://doi.org/10.1346/CCMN.2001.049050646.
Mitchell
, J. K.
and Soga
K.
. 2005
. Fundamentals of Soil Behavior
. Hoboken, NJ
: Wiley
.47.
Mooney
, R. W.
, Keenan
A. G.
, and Wood
L. A.
. 1952
. “Adsorption of Water Vapor by Montmorillonite. II. Effect of Exchangeable Ions and Lattice Swelling as Measured by X-Ray Diffraction
.” Journal of the American Chemical Society
74
, no. 6
(March): 1371
–1374
. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja01126a00248.
Moore
, D. M.
and Reynolds
R. C.
. 1997
. X-Ray Diffraction and the Identification and Analysis of Clay Minerals
. New York
: Oxford University Press
.49.
Morris
, G. E.
and Żbik
M. S.
. 2009
. “Smectite Suspension Structural Behaviour
.” International Journal of Mineral Processing
93
, no. 1
(September): 20
–25
. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.minpro.2009.05.00350.
Nadeau
, P. H.
1985
. “The Physical Dimensions of Fundamental Clay Particles
.” Clay Minerals
20
, no. 4
(December): 499
–514
. https://doi.org/10.1180/claymin.1985.020.4.0651.
Ngouana Wakou
, B. F.
, and Kalinichev
A. G.
. 2014
. “Structural Arrangements of Isomorphic Substitutions in Smectites: Molecular Simulation of the Swelling Properties, Interlayer Structure, and Dynamics of Hydrated Cs–Montmorillonite Revisited with New Clay Models
.” The Journal of Physical Chemistry C
118
, no. 24
(May): 12758
–12773
. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp500538z52.
Prost
, R.
, Koutit
T.
, Benchara
A.
, and Huard
E.
. 1998
. “State and Location of Water Adsorbed on Clay Minerals: Consequences of the Hydration and Swelling-Shrinkage Phenomena
.” Clays and Clay Minerals
46
, no. 2
(April): 117
–131
. https://doi.org/10.1346/CCMN.1998.046020153.
Quirk
, J. P.
1955
. “Significance of Surface Areas Calculated from Water Vapor Sorption Isotherms by Use of the B.E.T Equation
.” Soil Science
80
, no. 6
(December): 423
–430
.54.
Schollenberger
, C. J.
and Dreibelbis
F. R.
. 1930
. “Analytical Methods in Base Exchange Investigations on Soils
.” Soil Science
30
, no. 3
(September): 161
–174
.55.
Sivapullaiah
, P. V.
, Sitharam
T. G.
, and Subba Rao
K. S.
. 1987
. “Modified Free Swell Index for Clays
.” Geotechnical Testing Journal
10
, no. 2
(June): 80
–85
. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ10936J56.
Sridharan
, A.
and Prakash
K.
. 2000
. “Classification Procedures for Expansive Soils
.” Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers—Geotechnical Engineering
143
, no. 4
(January): 235
–240
. https://doi.org/10.1680/geng.2000.143.4.23557.
Talibudeen
, O.
and Goulding
K. W. T.
. 1983
. “Charge Heterogeneity in Smectites
.” Clays and Clay Minerals
31
, no. 1
(February): 37
–42
. https://doi.org/10.1346/CCMN.1983.031010658.
Tournassat
, C.
, Bourg
I. C.
, Steefel
C. I.
, and Bergaya
F.
. 2015
. “Surface Properties of Clay Minerals
.” In Natural and Engineered Clay Barriers
, edited by Tournassat
C.
, Steefel
C. I.
, Bourg
I. C.
, and Bergaya
F.
, 5
–31
. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Elsevier
.59.
Vantelon
, D.
, Montargès-Pelletier
E.
, Michot
L. J.
, Pelletier
M.
, Thomas
F.
, and Briois
V.
. 2003
. “Iron Distribution in the Octahedral Sheet of Dioctahedral Smectites. An Fe K-Edge X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy Study
.” Physics and Chemistry of Minerals
30
, no. 1
(February): 44
–53
. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00269-002-0286-y60.
Wang
, Y.
, Hu
L.
, Luo
S.
, and Lu
N.
. 2022
. “Soil Water Isotherm Model for Particle Surface Sorption and Interlamellar Sorption
.” Vadose Zone Journal
21
, no. 5
(August): e20221. https://doi.org/10.1002/vzj2.2022161.
Weil
, R. R.
and Brady
N. C.
. 2016
. The Nature and Properties of Soils
. London
: Pearson
.62.
Zhang
, C.
and Lu
N.
. 2019
. “Augmented Brunauer–Emmett–Teller Equation for Water Adsorption on Soils
.” Vadose Zone Journal
18
, no. 1
(August): 190011. https://doi.org/10.2136/vzj2019.01.001163.
Zhou
, B.
and Lu
N.
. 2021
. “Assessments of Water Sorption Methods to Determine Soil’s Specific Surface Area
.” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
147
, no. 8
(August): 4021066. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002579
This content is only available via PDF.
All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced or copied, in whole or part, in any printed, mechanical, electronic, film, or other distribution and storage media, without the written consent of ASTM International.
You do not currently have access to this content.
